Born Gaius Julius Caesar in Rome, Italy.

Murdered by the Senate on the steps of the Curia at Pompey's Theatre in Rome.

While there is some doubt as to whether Casear should be counted as the first Emperor, I include him here due to the pivotal role he played in the collapse of the Republic and the rise of the Principate. Caesar being so famous, I shall not dwell on the details. Suffice it to say, he came from a noble, but financially challenged background, gambled with power, running up heavy debts in order to pay off influential people and gain influential positions. He instigated a war of conquest in Gaul to gain the support of the common people and rose to the point where even the Senate could not oppose him. He marched, like Sulla before him, on Rome with his legions, and subsequently fought a civil war against Pompey the Great. His power continued to grow, the senate being forced by popular opinion to grant him the role of Dictator for life. On the eve of his accession to the greatest power Rome had ever known, he was hacked down on the steps of the curia by a conspiracy of Senators. His great nephew, Octavian used his death as a means of securing succession and laying the foundations of Empire.

Born Gaius Octavius in Rome, Italy.

Reigned 27 BC - 14 AD.

Died peacefully of old age at Nola during a tour of Campania.

Augustus brought peace and prosperity to the Empire after decades of civil war. He initiated a golden age in Rome (known as the Augustan Age), established the principles of the traditional Roman standing army and established the rule of the Principate and dynastic succession. He constructed and embellished many grand monuments in the city of Rome, including the sundial (now gone), a new forum, the ara pacis, his mausoleum and many others. It was he who made the decision to populate the Campus Martius as part of the city itself. Notable characters from his reign include his sister Octavia and his son-in-law and close advisor Agrippa. The greatest disaster of his reign was that of the Teutoborg forest in 9 AD where three legions were massacred by the Germanic turncoat Ariminius.

Born Tiberius Claudius Nero in Rome, Italy.

Reigned 14 - 37 AD.

Died of old age in a villa at Misenum.

Tiberius is an enigma. Drawn from some of the most noble stock of Rome and heir to Augustus by his mother's second marriage, Tiberius had a rocky relationship with his stepfather, the two of them often in opposition. His accession is clouded in mystery, though he settled into the role with only minor argument. There was a dark side to Tiberius' nature which showed more often the older he got. He was capable of being very angry and unforgiving, depressive and spiteful. Stories abound of his later cruelty (though these may be untrue.) Certainly, after an unfortunate plot and reprisals involving the Pretorian Prefect Sejanus, Tiberius largely withdrew from public life, spending his last six years in a minor state of paranoia on Capri and leaving the affairs of state in the hands of the Senate. The greatest monument he left was his addition to the Palatine, the Domus Tiberiana.

Born Gaius Julius Caesar Germanicus in Anzio, Italy.

Reigned 37 - 41 AD.

Murdered by members of the Pretorian guard.

Gaius (or Caligula as history better knows him) enjoyed only a brief reign and his reign is portrayed universally badly in ancient sources. Strangely, though all biographers agree on Caligula's madness, this is only in the form of anectodes. There is no solid evidence of madness. Particularly at the start of his reign the young Gaius was popular and played to the masses. The only contemporary record of him by a visiting dignitary is far from flattering, but shows no evidence of madness. The likely truth is that the young man had no experience of public office when he bacame Emperor, saw the Principate for what it was (absolute power) and took on the role of autocrat easily. Crass and tactless, he irritated many important people in the senate and the military and it is no surprise that after only four years the Pretorian Guard took matters into hand and removed him from power.

Born Tiberius Claudius Drusus in Lyon, France.

Reigned 41 - 54 AD.

Died suspiciously in Rome, possibly poisoned.

Since Claudius had been born with defects, drooling, club-footed, stammering and sickly, his family had long held him to be useless and possibly mad. As such, Claudius was largely ignored throughout his youth when the rest of his family suffered terribly. According to sources, Claudius was hiding behind a curtain when the Pretorian guard, having just murdered Caligula, brought him forth and proclaimed him Emperor. Certainly Claudius faced an uphill struggle. In order to win acclaim and settle into the position he initiated the invasion of Britain, something Rome had been wanting since the days of Julius Caesar. A military victory gained him the support he needed and Claudius proved to be a very able administrator. Lamentably, Claudius had some of the same dark side his uncle Tiberius had suffered with. His summary executions of wives and peers and his abandonment of his own son Germanicus in favour of his stepson Nero hint at a less careful man than he is usually portrayed. Accounts suggest that Claudius was poisoned by his wife Agrippina, though at the age now of 64, he may have passed purely through old age.

Born Lucius Domitius Ahenobarbus in Anzio, Italy.

Reigned 54 - 68 AD.

Committed suicide.

The adopted son of Claudius and his neice Agrippina, Nero was second in line to the throne until Claudius began to show preference of him over Britannicus. Giving some credibility to the tales of Claudius' murder, Nero was acclaimed Emperor by his mother the same afternoon that Claudius died. Under the influence of several people, including Seneca, Nero's reign began well with good government. Soon after, however, he murdered hi mother, abandoned his advisors and began to test the limits of Imperial power. He is remembered as a madman, whose power corrupted him. In his reign was the great fire that burned half of Rome to the ground. He built the lavish Domus Aurea in the ruins which was later torn down by other Emperors. In all, his reign turned out to be a disaster and proved the undoing of the dynasty. A series of rival claimants appeared and with little or no support against them, Nero committed suicide and the civil war known as the year of the four Emperors began.

Born Titus Flavius Vespasianus in Falacrine, Italy.

Reigned 69 - 79 AD.

Died peacefully of old age near Cittaducale, Italy.

Vespasian is a new creature to the Principate. He was not a nobleman but the son of a tax collector. He had, however, become a very successful military man, the height of his career under Claudius seeing him conquer the west of England as the commander of the 2nd Legion. Indeed, he was Consul and had been sent to Judea as a commander of several legions to put down the revolt there when the year of the four Emperors began. He was the last to claim the throne that year, but by the time he reached Rome, he was the only claimant and succession was achieved seamlessly. In Rome, he began to rebuild after the year of civil war, initiating such projects as the Temple of Claudius and the Colosseum, repairing the Capitol and building the Forum of Peace. An able administrator and tolerant leader, Vespasian very much repaired Rome and ushered in a new era of Peace, echoing the achievements of Augustus and setting the precendent for the 'Five Good Emperors.' He died in the countryside of an illness at the age of 70.

Born Titus Flavius Vespasianus in Rome, Italy.

Reigned 79 - 81 AD.

Died of unknown causes in the same villa as his father had near Cittaducale, Italy.

Titus had received a court education alongside Britannicus, son of Claudius. He had followed the traditional path of military and public offices before his father had taken the throne. In fact, when Vespasian did claim the purple and left for Rome, Titus remained in Judea in charge of the military campaign. He captured Jerusalem and shared military honours with his father (as decoration on his Arch in Rome shows.) Upon his father's death, he took control in Rome and continued the building projects of Vespasian. In his brief reign he dealt with another major fire in the city and the eruption of Vesuvius, pouring money into rebuilding and relief in both cases. Despite this, he left the treasury with more money than he started with. In all, his reign is looked back on with fondness as a time of peace, good goverment, popularity and great building works. Though his cause of death is unknown, it is likely to have been natural. Titus was popular and far out in the countryside when he died.

Born Titus Flavius Domitianus in Rome, Italy.

Reigned 81 - 96 AD.

Assassinated in Rome.

Domitian had spent most of the time prior to his accession as the second son, with little or no power and only nominal honours. He had not received a court education, his family were largely absent, leaving him isolated, his military career held no great achievements. And yet, when he achieved power, he not only effectively managed the economy, growing the treasury once more, but also began a scheme of construction and repair in Rome on a scale never before seen. He held magnificent games and achieved great popularity with the Roman people. However, his tendency toward isolation proved his undoing. The people's support was not enough, as he did not have the love of the army or a great deal of support from the upper classes. Indeed, he seems to have spent much of his reign distancing himself from the Senate and even mistrusting and punishing them. In the end it was a plot that evolved in the palace and among the upper class that saw him assassinated.

Born Marcus Cocceius Nerva in Narnia, Italy.

Reigned 96 - 98 AD.

Died following a stroke in his villa in Rome.

Nerva belonged to several long lived aristocratic lines. Indeed, he was a distant descendant of the emperor Tiberius and had been one of Domitian's circle of friends. He was 66 years old when Domitian was assassinated and, despite being a friend of his, as a senator he had been under suspicion in the last few years. He was proclaimed Emperor by the senate on the same day Domitian died. Nerva has not great military record, perhaps due to his short reign, but was an able administrator and leader. He completed Domitian's new forum, now named after Nerva, and restoed faith in the senate. Nerva adopted the commander of the Rhine legions, Trajan, as his successor, havign no children. In all, his brief reign was more the role of a caretaker and transition than a great changer. He died after less than 2 years in power of natural causes.

Born Marcus Ulpius Traianus in Italica, Spain.

Reigned 98 - 117 AD.

Died following an illness in Turkey while returning to Rome.

Trajan is remembered as one of the best men ever to hold the Imperial title. It is in his reign that the Empire reached its greatest extent. Though of noble Roman blood, Trajan was born and brought up in the family's lands in southern Spain. Trajan proved to be a very able ruler and administrator, as is evidenced by letters to Pliny. He was a strong military leader, conquering two great provinces in his time, and beloved of the army. The senate appreciated him and he remained on good terms with them, and the people loved him. He continually expanded the borders of the Empire in his reign and initiated great projects in Rome, including a new forum with basilica, a column commemorating his victory in Dacia, temples, baths and so on. His reputation remained so strong that even at the end of the fourth century, new emperors were blessed with the prayer "luckier than Augustus and better than Trajan." Trajan had become the guardian of Hadrian (his cousin's son) before his rise to power and a marriage to Trajan's great neice secured Hadrian's succession.

Born Publius Aelius Hadrianus in Italica, Spain.

Reigned 117 - 138 AD.

Died of natural causes in a villa at Baia.

Of southern Spanish origin, Hadrian was destined to follow Trajan almost twenty years before the former's death. Hadrian represents a turning point in Roman history, for he defines permanent borders to the Empire for the first time. He travelled throughout the provinces of the Empire, reoganising and ordering constructions. He is one of the most prolific builders in history, leaving for posterity the wall in Britain, new city at Athens, new city in Egypt, the great villa at Tivoli, along with many other public buildings in Rome. A lover of things Greek, Hadrian was the first bearded Emperor, making it fashionable in Rome. He loved philosophy and may have had homosexual leanings suggested by his favourite, Antinoos, a handsome lad who travelled everywhere with him. Despite his grief when Antinoos drowned in the Nile, Hadrian continued as an able administrator, selecting not only his successor, but his successor's successor. Hadrian's distinct non-Roman attitude led to some unpopularity with the upper classes and it was only the insistence of his successor that stopped Hadrian being damned after his death.

Born Titus Aurelius Fulvus Boionius Arrius Antoninus in Lanuvio, Italy.

Reigned 138 - 161 AD.

Died of natural causes at Rome.

Antoninus Pius, though not the first choice for succession has proved to be possibly the pefect model of a good emperor in Rome's history. He governed justly and effectively, was generous and honourable, approachable and respectful of the gods, the people and his predecessor. Though he never left Italy and rarely left Rome, his generals fought successful campaigns against several outside threats, including the construction of the Antonine wall in Scotland. He spent very sparingly on public works, initiating few of his own, but completing work on Hadrian's projects. He was remembered fondly by all and received the epithet Pius for his troubles. In preparation for the succession, he married his adoptive son Marcus Aurelius to his daughter. He died peacfully in Rome and was consequently deified.

Born Marcus Annius Verus in Rome, Italy.

Reigned 161 - 180 AD.

Died following an illness in camp at Vienna.

Marcus Aurelius had a troubled reign. After a flawless accession, he proved to be an able administrator and ruler and was a lover of philosophy. He wrote a treatise called the 'Meditations' that survives and yet, despite his literary leanings, spent most of his 19 year reign on the northern borders of the Empire fighting a series of defensive wars. He co-ruled with his adoptive brother Lucius Verus for eight years until the latter's death. His plans for succession are not truly known, but he certainly settled on his son Commodus after the death of Verus. Aurelius built very little in Rome, beginning his column that was not completed until long after his death, and constructing three triumphal arches, none of which have survived. Aurelius remains one of the great figures of Roman history and is generally considered to be the last in a line of good emperors and the end of his reign is often considered the beginning of the so called 'decline'.

Born Lucius Ceionius Commodus in Rome.

Reigned 161 - 169 AD (Co-ruled with Marcus Aurelius).

Died after a serious illness at Altino, Italy.

Lucius Verus was raised as brother to Marcus Aurelius and when Antoninus died, the two took power together (the first time Rome had been ruled by two Emperors.) Marcus was the senior partner, with Lucius as a younger counterpart. Marcus immediately involved himself in the serious affairs of state, while Verus was dispatched to the east to fight a war against Parthia. Though the war was carried out successfully by generals, Verus enjoyed himself at parties and performances throughout. On his return to Rome his lavish and hedonistic lifestyle gradually increased as Marcus continued to run the daily affairs of the Empire. In an effort to force Verus into serious pursuits and perhaps to keep him under control, Marcus took him north in 168 to fight the threatening Germanic tribes. However, less than a year later, while the two Emperors were returning to Rome, Verus was taken seriously ill. His condition worsened and he died before he reached Rome. Tales of treachery and murder exist, though there is no reason to believe them.

Born Lucius Aurelius Commodus Antoninus in Lanuvio, Italy.

Reigned 177 - 192 AD.

Murdered in Rome.

Commodus had some experience of power before his accession to sole rule in 180, as he had three years of being co-ruler with his father Marcus Aurelius. After spending most of his youth with his father on the German frontier, when his father died, he quickly made a costly peace with the Germans and returned with the army to Rome. There he played to the people, becoming very popular with the lower classes and the army, though not with the senate whom he taxed heavily to the benefit of the rest. After a promising start, however, Commodus gradually slid into megalomania, identifying himself with Hercules, fighting in gladiatorial contests, apparently changing the name of the city, the months and the legions to reflect his own name and calling his own reign a 'golden age'. After several failed attempts on his life, commodus was finally strangled in his bath by an athlete, likely paid by the Senate.

Born Publius Helvius Pertinax in Alba, Italy

Reigned 193 AD.

Murdered by Soldiers in the Imperial palace.

During the plot against Commodus, the assassins seem to have settled on the popular 66 year old Senator Pertinax in advance. He was immediately raised as Emperor, and ressurected the title 'Princeps Senatus' or First of the Senate, in deference to Republican ideals. He was likely seen as a new Nerva - a respected Senator restoring the Empire after the murder of a tyrant. Due to insufficient funds in the Imperial treasury to pay the now expected donative to the army on his succession, his gift was considerably smaller than they expected. As a result, while he oversaw corn supplies in Ostia the Praetorian Guard plotted a coup. As Pertinax rushed back to Rome to defuse the coup, he met with the conspirators face-to-face on the Palatine and was dispatched there after a reign of less than 3 months.

Born Didius Julianus in Milan, Italy.

Reigned 193 AD

Murdered on the Palatine

When Pertinax was killed, his father in law tried to no avail to persuade the Praetorians to proclaim him. The guard searched for someone else and alighted upon Didius Julianus, a man with a noble enough lineage and cursus honorem, but regarded as a spendthrift and unfit to rule. The two men stood outside the Praetorian camp and began to bid for the loyalty of the guard. Julianus won, promising 25,000 sesterces per soldier. He was proclaimed by the Senate, but after little more than a month, three uprisings began. Two were not over-significant, but the third by Seprimius Severus was to be his undoing. Julianus attempted to deal with Severus by way of ambassadors and assassins, but all defected to the enemy. As Severus marched unopposed into Italy, the Senate proclaimed him Emperor and passed a death sentence on Julianus. The Praetorians cut him down on the Palatine.

Born Lucius Septimius Severus in Leptis Magna, Libya.

Reigned 193 - 211 AD.

Died of complications and illness from the gout in York, Great Britain.

After the brief civil war following the fall of Commodus, Septimius Severus came to power from his position of command in Pannonia. With the support of the legions he claimed power in Rome, restoring peace, but increasing the power of the military and putting financial strain on the Empire. Only prudent control kept the Empire from ruin during his reign. After several small failed coups, Severus went on to campaign in the East and then Britain, where he died in York, leaving his two sons, Geta and Caracalla as joint Emperors. In his increase in Imperial administration and increased power of the military, Severus changed the nature of Rome for the rest of its days, creating a militaristic government and more autocratic power.

Born Publius Septimius Geta in Rome, Italy.

Reigned 211 AD.

Murdered by Caracalla in Rome.

A year younger than his brother, Geta had not been groomed to take control as Caracalla had. So when their father died and made them joint Emperors, Geta was clearly the lesser member of the partnership. Even during their father's reign the two brothers had a rocky relationship at best and by the time of their ascention were barely on speaking terms. Geta clearly considered himself of equal status to Caracalla and government virtually ground to a halt as they argued over every decision. By the end of their first year, Caracalla had had his younger brother murdered and announced it as an execution on the grounds of a plot against himself. While there is no real evidence either way, it is entirely possible that this was true. Regardless the event led to the reign of Geta being cut short before a year, unpopularity for Caracalla and Geta's name and image being erased from almost every monument in the Empire.

Born Lucius Septimius Bassianus in Lyon, France.

Reigned 211 - 217 AD.

Murdered by the Praetorian Guard at Edessa, Syria.

After his ascension to power alongside his brother Geta, Caracalla had the younger heir murdered and assumed sole power. The removal of Geta, however, made the new Emperor unpopular and led to his villainisation and the slain heir's popularity. The name by which he is now known was never an official title. Used as an insult to his memory, it is the name of a type of Gaulish cloak the Emperor favoured. In the footsteps of his father, Caracalla once again increased the pay and power of the army. In order to meet the increasingly high financial demands, he bestowed Roman citizenship on all the free people of the Empire (thereby allowing him to tax them.) This mixed blessing was received well by the people and bought back some of his popularity. His most notable legacy is the Bath complex that bears his name, begun by him but completed years later by Alexander Severus. Caracalla campaigned in the east, visiting cities and temples as he went and it was in Syria that he was murdered while visiting a shrine. The Praetorian guard were implicated and it seems almost certain that the Praetorian prefect, Macrinus was behind the affair. Caracalla left no heirs.

Born Marcus Opellius Macrinus in Cherchell, Algeria.

Reigned 217 - 218 AD

Executed in Cappadocia, Turkey

Macrinus had been the Praetorian prefect under Caracalla and is most likely the man behind the plot that saw his predecessor murdered. Whether true or not, Macrinus was proclaimed Emperor on the spot by his troops and immediately named his son, Diadumenian, as his heir. He immediately had to deal with the Parthians before heading to Rome, as they refused his offers of peace. In the end, he had to pay a large bribe to placate them. Dissatisfaction grew in Rome and among the eastern army, and soon a revolt was underway in Syria in favour of a distant cousin of Caracalla. This boy, Elagabalus, and his army, met Macrinus' and soundly defeated them. Macrinus attempted to flee back to Rome in disguise, but was caught and executed in Cappadocia.

Born Marcus Opellius Diadumenianus, probably in Cherchell, Algeria.

Reigned 217 - 218 AD

Executed in Zeugma, Turkey

Diadumenian had been raised by his father to be his co-Emperor and successor, but barely had time to learn anything, as in just over a year the revolt under Elagabalus began and his father Macrinus was executed. Before his death, he sent Diadumenian with a letter to the Parthian King for his safety, but the boy was caught at Zeugma and his death followed his father's in short order. Very briefly, after Macrinus' death and while on the run to Parthia, Diadumenian was nominally the sole Emperor of Rome.

Born Varius Avitus Bassianus in Emesa, Syria

Reigned 218 - 222 AD

Murdered in Rome.

Avitus had spent some of his youth in Rome in the Imperial court, having close connections to the Severan dynasty. He was a distant cousin of Caracalla, and on the latter's death, the young man held the role of high priest of Elagabalus or "Heliogabalus", the sun God in Emesa. Discontent grew with Macrinus and the army proclaimed the boy Emperor. As soon as he arrived in Rome, Elagabalus as he is later known, began a series of moves that fast made him unpopular in all circles. He performed a 'marriage of the Gods' between his own and the Punic Goddess Tanit. Despite a childless marriage, he had a series of homosexual relationships and put his favourites in positions of power. He broke the most sacred of traditions in Rome by marrying a Vestal virgin. He then divorced her and married another noble lady, eventually divorcing her also and remarrying his first wife. None of these produced an heir and his influential grandmother persuaded him to adopt his cousin, who became Severus Alexander. After some confusion as to where authority between them lay, Elagabalus tried to have Alexander murdered, but instead it was he and his mother who were cut down and his cousin proclaimed sole Emperor.

Born Marcus Julius Gessius Bassianus Alexianus in Arqa, Lebanon.

Reigned 222 - 235 AD

Murdered by troops at Mainz, Germany.

The cousin of Elagabalus and reputedly illigitimate son of Caracalla, Alexander was named heir by his cousin and adopted the rank of Caesar. Upon Elagabalus' murder, Alexander was hailed as Emperor by the army, now at the age of 14 and the youngest Emperor ever hailed in Rome. Being so young, much of the actual governing of Empire was carried out by his mother and grandmother and the two Praetorian prefects, all of whom served well, though his grandmother died early in his reign. His reign reflects a return to stability and sanity after a run of bad rulership. He instituted a building program in Rome and returned some of the Senate's honour. Unfortunately, this significant improvement was hampered by threats from Persia and Germany. Though he managed to secure the eastern border, when he travelled to Mainz to deal with the German problem, he decided to sue for peace rather than carry out the planned campaign across the Rhine. Dissatisfied with this policy, the troops rebelled and murdered the young Emperor. In all, Alexander could have been a significant ruler, but his lack of military prowess led to his downfall.

Born Gaius Julius Verus Maximinus Thrax, somewhere in Bulgaria.

Reigned 235 - 238 AD.

Beheaded by his troops at Aquileia in Italy.

A lower class Thracian who had worked his way through the ranks of the army, Maximinus was commander of the legions on the Rhine when, with the support of his army, he rebelled against Severus Alexander and claimed the throne. The young Emperor was abandoned by his own troops and killed, leaving Maximinus in control. He was the first of the so-called Soldier Emperors, low-born military, and spent his entire three year reign away from Rome on campaign. Putting down two coups, Maximinus campaigned first across the Rhine against the Germans and then across the Danube against the Dacians. His wars were becoming costly to the wealthy Roman elite and when a revolt began in Tunisia, the Senate supported it. Maximinus rushed back to Italy but were blocked by the Senate's forces. After a brief siege at Aquileia, disgruntled soldiers beheaded both Maximinus and his son and the Emperor's reign was over.

Born Marcus Antonius Gordianus Sempronianus Romanus, somewhere in Turkey.

Reigned 238 AD.

Committed suicide in Carthage, Tunisia.

Of a well-to-do but not prominent family, Gordian rose very slowly through the political cursus honorem, only achieving real position around the age 50-60. In fact, by 238 when he was governor of Proconsul of Africa he was almost 80. It seems strange then that he became the subject of an uprising in Thysdrus against the Emperor Maximinus Thrax, perhaps a tribute to an intellectual and beneficial life rather than his career.Upon his raising by the troops and being confirmed by the Senate, he entered Carthage and made his son co-emperor. Within a matter of weeks, however, the governor of neighbouring Numidia led an army against Carthage, killing the younger Gordian in battle. The elder Gordian committed suicide in the city before the army breached the gates.

Born Marcus Clodius Pupienus Maximus, possibly in Volterra, Italy.

Reigned 238 AD.

Murdered in the Praetorian Camp.

On the death of Gordian I and II in Carthage, the Senate voted two men of their own choosing as co-emperors in order to complete the campaign against Maximinus Thrax. Pupienus was a relatively low-born individual who had had a meteoric rise through the cursus honorem to the highest levels of power. While his colleague maintained Rome, Puienius marched to Aquileia to do battle, but before battle came, Maximinus' troops executed their master. Puienus then returned to Rome where mistrust between the two led eventually to open argument and finally the Praetorian Guard, unhappy with Senate-appointed Emperors, dragged them both to the Castra Pretoria and murdered them both.

Born Decimus Caelius Calvinus Balbinus, location unknown.

Reigned 238 AD.

Murdered in the Praetorian Camp.

On the death of Gordian I and II in Carthage, the Senate voted two men of their own choosing as co-emperors in order to complete the campaign against Maximinus Thrax. Balbinus seems to have been of an old and established family. While his colleague marched to Aquileia to do battle, Balbinus stayed and kept control in Rome. Puienus then returned to Rome where mistrust between the two led eventually to open argument and finally the Praetorian Guard, unhappy with Senate-appointed Emperors, dragged them both to the Castra Pretoria and murdered them both.

Born Marcus Antonius Gordianus in Rome.

Reigned 238 - 244 AD.

Died in Mesopotamia.

At the end of the unpopular reigns of Pupienus and Balbinus, the 13 year old grandson of Gordian I was hailed as Emperor and began a stable, if short reign that marked the end of the 'Year of the Six Emperors'. For the first few years, the government of Rome remained largely in the hands of the same families as it had under the Severan and Antonine periods, with a young figurehead. Then, in 240, the Persians, expansionist under Shapur I, campaigned in the East and took Rome's easternmost garrison, Hatra. Rome's armies went east and Gordian joined them in 243. Varying reports give his death at a battle at Peroz-Shapur, or of an illness in camp near the Euphrates, or possibly even at the hands of his Praetorian prefect and successor, Phillip the Arab.

Born Marcus Julius Philippus in Shahba, Syria.

Reigned 244 - 249 AD.

Died at Verona either in battle or as a result of it.

Under Gordian III, Phillip was made one of the two Praetorian Prefects, at the urging of his brother, who was the other one. Upon the death of Gordian, possibly engineered by Phillip, he was proclaimed Emperor by the army, settled a costly peace with Persia and returned to Rome. Phillip's reign is marked by failed revolts, campaigns of uncertain outcome and costly peace settlements. Two factors make Phillip's reign significant. Firstly, Rome's 1000th anniversary was held in his reign, marked with massive celebrations. Secondly, several sources suggest that Phillip may have been a Christian. Though this is uncertain, it would make him the first Emperor to follow that religion. With unrest among the Balkan armies, Phillip sent Decius to deal with the troops, who promptly proclaimed the new arrival as an Emperor. Phillip marched out to meet him and when they met in battle at Verona, Phillip was either killed in battle or killed by his troops.

Born Gaius Messius Quintus Decius Valerianus near Sremska Mitrovica, Serbia.

Reigned 249 - 251 AD.

Died in battle at Abrittus (Razgrad, Bulgaria).

Sent by Phillip to quell unrest in the Balkan legions, Decius did precisely that, being proclaimed emperor by them in short order. As Decius marched on Rome, Philip met him in battle at Verona and was either killed in the battle or by his troops immediately afterwards. Upon assuming power, Decius had Philip damned and began a major persecution of the Christians. He fought border wars against an ever more active Gothic presence in all three years of his reign. In 251, while attempting to follow the Gothic King after a battle and cut off his escape, Decius and his army were cut down by the Goths at Abrittus, becoming the first Emperor to die in a battle against a foreign enemy.

Born Gaius Valens Hostilianus possibly somewhere in Pannonia.

Reigned 251 AD.

Died of Plague in Rome.

Proclaimed Caesar along with his brother by their father in 250, Hostilian was in Rome when his father and brother died in battle at Abrittus. Though Trebonianus Gallus was immediately named Emperor by the troops, the new Emperor immediately adopted Hostililan to prevent succession crises. Hostilian, however, fell to an outbreak of plague around a month later.

Born Gaius Vibius Trebonianus Gallus possibly in Perusia, Italy.

Reigned 251 - 253 AD.

Murdered by his army at Interamna, Italy..

Gallus was one of the senior commanders of Decius' army in the Balkan wars. When Gallus died at Abrittus, the army proclaimed Gallus Emperor. Wiht his own son and Hostilian as his heirs, Gallus signed a very unpopular treaty to end the Gothic wars allowing them to keep their loot and prisoners. He then returned to Rome, to find it mired in plague. While he dealt well with the plague crisis, Gallus failed to act decisively against new Persian and Gothic incursions, losing the entire province of Syria to Shapur I. When the Balkan legions revolted and proclaimed Aemilianus Emperor, the usurper marched on Rome and Gallus and his son went to meet them. Before battle could be joined, Gallus and his son were murdered by their troops.

Born Publius Licinius Egnatius Gallienus, location unknown.

Reigned 253 - 268 AD.

Murdered by troops at Nis, Serbia.

Gallienus was proclaimed as co-emperor with his father Valerian, following the death of Trebonianus Gallus, by their troops in Switzerland. Unusually, in a period of soldier-emperors, father and son were members of the Senatorial class in Rome. While Valerian controlled the east, Gallienus spent seven years fighting incursions in the west and creating treaties to preserve the borders, even putting down minor insurrections. When his father was killed by the Persians in 259, Gallienus became sole ruler. He granted rights to the Christians, elevated the Equestrian class to the role of Provincial governors (creating friction with the Senate), increased the role of cavalry in the military, It was during his reign that Postumus seceded and created the Gallic Empire and Zenobia declared independence with the Kingdom of Palmyra. Despite his strong leadership, the Empire began to fracture. In 268 AD, while on campaign in Naissus, he was murdered by senior officers in his army, including two future Emperors, Claudius II and Aurelian.

IMPERATOR CAESAR MARCUS AURELIUS PROBUS PIUS FELIX INVICTUS AUGUSTUS

Born Marcus Aurelius Equitius Probus in Sremska Mitrovica, Serbia.

Reigned 276 - 282 AD.

Murdered by his soldiers at Sremska Mitrovica, Serbia.

As with so many of the Soldier-Emperors, Probus was a career soldier (of whose early career we know very little) and was proclaimed Emperor by his troops. He ran a war of attrition against the Emperor Florian, who was eventually killed by his own troops, leaving Probus in sole command. In the first three years of his reign he campaigned successfully against the tribes across the Rhine and upper Danube, finally beginning a series of fortifications down the Rhine to strengthen the border. In 279-280, he successfully campaigned in Turkey and then in Egypt. In Egypt he renovated the system of dams and canals for the first time in almost 3 centuries, increasing the grain yield. In the last years, three revolts were successfully defeated, two of them without a military action. In 281 AD he set off to campaign in Persia, but on the way was forced to deal with the revolt of Carus at Sirmium. The troops he sent to deal with the insurrection defected and his own soldiers murdered him.

Born Marcus Aurelius Carinus, location unknown.

Reigned 283 - 285 AD.

Died in or after the battle of the Margus River.

The son of Carus and co-emperor of Numerianus, his brother, Carinus became Emperor on the death of his father on campaign in Persia. Carinus had been left in charge of the west and, according to (probably exaggerated accounts), began a bloodthirsty and hedonistic reign, murdering senators and sleeping with their wives. He was campaigning in Britain in 285 when a revolt broke out on the northern Danube. Carinus marched to respond and defeated the usurper, only to learn that another revolt had begun in Bulgaria under Diocletian. He marched on to meet this force and died there. According to traditional history he won the battle but was then slain by a jealous office whose wife he had raped. More likely the bulk of his army defected to Diocletian and deserted the unpopular Emperor who was subsequently damned.

IMPERATOR CAESAR GAIUS AURELIUS VALERIUS DIOCLETIANUS PIUS FELIX INVICTUS AUGUSTUS

Born Diocles, probably at Solin, Croatia.

Reigned 284 - 305 AD.

Died of natural causes in Split, Croatia.

Raised in an uprising on the lower Danube, Diocletian's reign dates from before Carinus' death. This low-born Dalmatian had come 'from nothing' though a very successful military career and had proved to be an extremely capable commander. Diocletian is famed for his administrative reforms, splitting the Empire into two, and in numerous smaller divisons, seperating military and civilian careers, reforming the army into border defence troops and a mobile field army, and establishing the Tetrarchy (rule of four) that had each half of the Empire controlled by an Emperor who had an adopted Emperor in waiting, eliminating succession crises. Reforms of the currency and occupations were less successful and badly received. Diocletian succeeded in solidifying and even expanding the previously threatened borders. Possibly under the influence of Galerius, Diocletian began the so called 'Great Persecution' of the Christians, likely in order to promote the Imperial Cult and control allegiance to the purple. In 305, he became the first Emperor to successfully retire, moving into his newly built palace at Split, Croatia. It is this and his baths in Rome for which he is remembered as a builder. He refused an offer to retake his throne in 308 and finally in 316, he died of natural causes in his palace. Diocletian should be regarded as one of the most important of Emperors. His accession marks the end of 50 years of anarchy and marks the turning point and the basis of the future Byzantine Empire.

Born Valerius Licinianus Licinius, somewhere in Dacia (Romania).

Reigned 308 - 324 AD.

Executed in Thessalonica.

Appointed Emperor in the wake of troubles, Licinius was given command of the Balkan regions and realistically should be counted an 'eastern' Emperor with Maxentius in command in the West. Upon Maxentius' death at the Milvian Bridge in 312, Licinius came to blows with his successor, Constantine. After an initial peace, where both Emperors issued the edict of Milan, allowing freedom of worship to Christians, Licinius campaigned against the Persians. Between 314 and 317 a civil war broke out between them, ended by mutual agreement in 317. Border disputes between them once more caused an opening of hostilities in 321 and he ended besieged by Constantine at Nicomedia. He abdicated and was placed under house arrest before being put to death on Constantine's orders in 325.

Born Gaius Flavius Valerius Constantinus in Nis, Serbia

Reigned 307 - 337 AD

Died of natural causes at Izmir in Turkey, returned to Constantinople for burial.

Constantine is responsible during his thirty year reign for the legitimization of Christianity and the creation of Catholic dogma, the construction of great monuments in Rome, including Christian Basilica, the triumphal arch that bears his name and a bath house. He will always be remembered for the foundation of his 'new Rome', Constantinople, over the ancient city of Byzantium, thereby solidifying the gradual divide between East and West. His victory over Maxentius at the Milvian bridge, with the famous 'by this sign shall ye conquer' remains one of the most important battles in European history. His three decades of power are almost unprecedented since the second century, and he is the first ruler in two hundred years to institute a dynasty that would last beyond three Emperors. Constantine himself was baptised as a Christian upon his death bed, the first Emperor to be baptised. It is important when viewing Constantine in his 'saintly' mode, to remember that he was foremost a politician and was responsible for the executions of not only his co-Emperor Licinius, but also his first-born son, Crispus, and his wife Fausta. Despite his Christian faith, Constantine's Imperial policy was essentially a conservative one, mixing the new religion with traditional Roman values.

IMPERATOR CAESAR FLAVIUS VALERIUS CONSTANTINUS AUGUSTUS (II)

Born Flavius Claudius Constantinus in Arles, France.

Reigned 337 - 340 AD

Died in battle at Aquileia

Raised as a Christian, Constantine II served as his father's field commander prior to his accession. Little is known of his early life, including the name of his wife. As one of the surviving three children of Constantine, he received a third of the Empire as it was split between them. Constantine II took control of Britannia, Gaul and Spain. The peace between the sons of Constantine did not last and within three years, Constantine II marched on his brother Constans in an attempt to expand his realm, only to die in battle at Aquileia in northern Italy.

Born Flavius Valentinianus in Milan, Italy

Reigned 375 - 392 AD

Suicide or murder in Vienne, France.

When his father, Valentinian I, died of a stroke at a conference, the army proclaimed his son Emperor. He was 4 years old, and his half-brother Gratian, who should have been the legitimate heir accepted the decision, raising and educating Valentinian II. His extreme youth while in power led to him being undermined in all areas. Theodosius, the Eastern Emperor, treated him as the junior partner. Magnus Maximus revolted against him in Britain and, eventually in 387 invaded Italy. Valentinian II was forced to plead for help from Theodosius, who aided him and crushed Maximus. From his return to Italy he was almost constantly 'controlled' by his general, Arbogast, and when the young man died in Vienne, it may have been suicide, or possibly a political move by Arbogast.

Born Flavius Honorius, location unknown

Reigned 395 - 423 AD.

Died of lung disease in Ravenna.

Born Flavius Arcadius, location unknown

Reigned 395 - 408 AD

Died of unknown causes in Constantinople.

When Theodosius died, the brothers Honorius and Arcadius succeeded to the throne, with Honorius taking the west and Arcadius the east. Arcadius had an undistinguished reign, spending the entire period largely ineffectual and completely under the influence or control of a number of his advisors with no real power of his own. He died in Constantinople of unknown causes in 408 and his son took succession smoothly.