Two arches in fact may have been constructed in the forum in honour of Augustus. One was certainly voted by the Senate and erected in 19 BC after the battle of Carrhae to celebrate the return of the standards that had been captured by the Parthians. The other, voted in 29 BC after the battle of Actium to commemorate Augustus' victory over Antony and Cleopatra is uncertain as records tell us it was voted but we have no record of its actual construction. It seems likely however, that both arches existed within the forum. Only one has so far been found and identifying it with either of these is problematic. Records tell us that the arch of 19 BC stood next to the Temple of the Divine Caesar, which is where these remains stand. However, the only inscription found around the arch base dates to dedication on 29 BC. In either case, the arch was once a triple triumphal arch, though only the very base of the piers remain. From the meagre ruins, however, it is clear what the stonework was.

The arch of Severus was constructed in 203 AD and dedicated to Severus, Geta and Caracalla together. It stands in a prominent position before the temple of Concord and close to the Curia. A triple arch constructed in marble, this triumphal arch was constructed to commemorate Severus' victories in his eastern campaign. The arch survives in an excellent condition as during the medieval period, half of it belonged to a church while the other half was fortified as a tower. In all, the arch if one of the best preserved monuments in Rome and certainly for me one of the highlights of the forum. It never fails to impress.

Constructed at the eastern end of the forum, this single-span triumphal arch was voted to commemorate the siege of Jerusalem by the young soldier. It was not completed during the emperor's short reign and was dedicated by Domitian to his brother. Considerable damage was done to the arch during the medieval period when it became a gate for the Frangipani fortress, and the ruins were so dilapidated and damaged that in 1822 the whole structure was taken apart and reconstructed with new stone, using parts of the original where possible. Thus the arch we see now is not entirely original. It is quite easy, however, to identify the original parts and the decoration makes it well worth viewing closely. Note in the third picture the frieze which shows the Roman army carrying off the spoils from the temple of Jerusalem, including the seven-branched candelabra.

The Basilica Aemilia was constructed by Marcus Aemilius Lepidus and Marcus Fulvius Nobilior in the late Republican period and continued to be maintained by the family well into the Empire. It was gutted by fire in 14 BC and restored by the family and then restored once again in 22 AD. Once again the building was burned at the start of the 5th century, after which the building was abandoned. As with all basilica, the function of this building was to house courts, markets, shops, public speaking and areas. The building is one of the more intact ruins of the forum and, though inaccessible to the pedestrian, can be viewed from both sides on the path in the forum and from the Via dei Fori Imperiali.

Though now a low ruin, this building must have once dominated the forum. Begun in 54 BC and dedicated in 46 BC this building, though begun by Caesar, was not actually completed until the reign of Augustus. Soon after it suffered fire damage and was rebuilt by Augustus and rededicated in 12 AD to the memory of Gaius and Lucius Caesar. It was later restored by Diocletian and by Priobianus in 416 AD. The building was raped of its marble more than most in the medieval period and rendered down and very little remains now but the low stumps of the pillars, parts of the marble paving and the platform itself.

Also known as the Basilica of Constantine, this huge edifice was begun by the former and completed by the latter. This last basilica in Rome was constructed over the site of Domitian's horrea at the east end of the forum, next to the temple of Venus & Rome. Only one aisle remains standing, the rest perhaps having collapsed in the earthquake of 847 AD. Pope Honorious removed the bronze tiles of the basilica for the roof of Saint Peter's. With a lost vestibule to the east and a lost apse to the west, it is hard to picture the full shape of the original building. The fragments of the statue of Constantine now in the Capitoline Museum were found within the apse of this building. The sheer scale of the walls gives some idea of how impressive and magnificent the building must have been in the early 4th century. Even with only one aisle standing, this basilica is easily one of the most impressive monuments in the city.

At the far east end of the forum below the corner of the Palatine is a collection of ruins that have only recently been investigated. They are often labelled 'baths of Elagabalus', though the archaeology tells of an originally sacred purpose in the early days of the Republic, after which the area was covered with housing. This again was replaced with a large individual house in the late Republic which finally burned bown in 64 AD in the reign of Nero. After the fire, this area became part of the porticoed entrance to the Domus Aurea, with later alterations by Domitian and then Hadrian (no doubt altering the purpose of the buildings). The visible ruins date to the late Severan period and are known as the baths of Elagabalus partially due to remains found that hint at a bathing establishment and partially due to the fact that said Emperor is known to have constructed baths and is generally assumed to have carried out the work on the Palatine just above this.

This, the last of the honorific columns erected in the forum, before the Rostrum, was dedicated by Phocas, emperor of Byzantium, in 608 AD. The column is reused and it is possible that it sat in the same position, dedicated to a different person, or possibly that Phocas had it moved and erected here. Either way, an earlier inscription has been obliterated and rededicated to the Byzantine Emperor. In its original form, it was likely surmounted by a bronze statue of the Emperor. Close by, in the central space of the forum are five more honorific pillars, though we have no dedications for the others.

In the days of the republic this open space before the curia was a place of public assembly to observe a number of rituals and celebrations. The first comitium was in the 6th century BC and remains of the compacted earth floor of this date survive beneath the currently visible remains. The travertine paving in view is generally agreed to date from the 4th century. The comitium is easy to completely miss unless you know what it is and are looking for it.

The meeting house of the Senate has not always been this place. Originally the Curia Hostilia stood nearby and after this, the Curia Pompeia. During the time of the dictator however, Caesar decided upon a new meeting place, the Curia Iulia, that was to be constructed in the forum, close to the site of the Curia Hostilia. Caesar was assassinated in the Curia Pompeia in 44 BC not long after construction had begun and the Curia Iulia was not dedicated until 28 BC by Augustus. After fire damage it was restored by Domitian in 94 AD and then after another fire, by Diocletian. The building in its currently visible form dates from this rebuild. In the time of Honorius I, the curia was turned into the church of Sant Adriano and it survives for this reason. Formed of concrete with a brick facing, this building now looks very austere, but at the time of the Principate, it would have been further faced with marble and stucco marble-imitation

After the founding of the tetrarchy under Diocletian and the splitting of east and west, the Empire settled into a brief time of peace and prosperity after long periods of poverty and war. After 10 years of this new system of rule, the Decennalia was held, celebrating the decade. In honour of this a monument was set up in the forum with two columns dedicated to the four rulers (two Augusti and two Caesars.) The base of one of the columns of this monument has survived. It is richly carved and can be positively identified due to an inscription on the base.

Here once hung the massive Severan marble plan of Rome that currently exists only in fragments, forming the greatest jigsaw puzzle in the world for Roman historians. The wall that bore the plan still shows the pock marks of the iron brackets that held the sections of the great plan.

At the eastern end of the forum, the Horrea Vespasiani, constructed by the Flavian emperor over parts of the approach to Nero's Domus Aurea. It was designed as a fish-market and was used as such until the reign of Hadrian when it was converted to offices for the Imperial administration. There are few remains to be seen however from either of these periods. The walls now visible are largely of the 5th century AD. The discovery of wash tubs and shells in the area confirms the location of the horrea.

The Rostrum (as in modern times) was a podium or platform for public speaking. This massive rostrum at the west end of the forum replaced the earlier rostrum of Caesar which stood near his temple. Under Augustus, however, a new rostrum was constructed at the other end of the central area of the forum. This huge, rectangular platform was then altered by Septimius Severus to fit around his arch. Finally a brick extension was constructed on the north end in 470 AD (known as the Vandal Rostrum.) Restorations were carried out in the early 20th century, during which the rostrum was reconstructed to its original height.

The Lacus Curtius remains something of a mystery. In the central space of the forum, it consists of an area of paving with a cicular section marked out upon (or beside) which once may have stood an altar and friezes. There is a frieze nearby of a Sabine horseman that is believed to be linked with it. In the Principate, the people of Rome yearly threw a coin into the lacus to ask the Gods to keep the Emperor safe. Its name is an enigma itself. The stories behind it vary. Perhaps it was named for a certain Sabine warrior called Curtius who rode into the swamp here to escape pursuing Romans. Perhaps it was a sacred spot enclosed by a man called Curtius after it was struck by lightning. Perhaps the far-fetched story of a deep hole opening in the forum and according to prophecy a man called Curtius leapt in to save Rome and the hole closed. These are the three stories of which we have evidence. The true meaning is still unclear. Not accessible, but visible behind a low rail, the lacus curtius remains unknown to most visitors and is usually overlooked.

The Millarium Aureum is one of those small unusual monuments in the forum that few people realise is there. Constructed by Augustus in 20 BC, this was once a bronze-coated column upon a marble base that stood at the central point where the great roads of the empire met at the capital. Upon it were carved the names of all the other great cities of the empire, along with the appropriate distances. Nothing remains of this monument but a decorative fragment of the marble base that remains in situ.

Though this building was originally a republican structure, the whole thing was completely rebuilt by the Flavian Emperors and all visible remains date from that time or from the restoration of 367 AD. This was dedicated to the 12 counsellor Gods, the traditional Roman Gods, rather than the many more that had been adopted from other cultures. The remains consist of a series of rooms built at an angle formed by the Capitoline and the Tabularium, with their roof serving as a great marble floor with another set of rooms above surrounded by a colonnade.

The Regia was originally the home of the Kings of Rome. When the Republic was proclaimed the house was seized by the Senate and became the administrative headquarters of the Pontifex Maximus (or high priest) of the city. The building passed seamlessly into Imperial hands when the Emperors took on the title as part of their duties and it remained such until the adoption of Christianity by the Empire. A shrine of Mars was kept within the building and various sacrifices are noted as taking place here. The regia was ruined by fire in 148 BC and 36 BC, followed each time by a restoration. The visible remains show work from the Republican and Imperial periods and some signs of medieval construction, though only low wall and foundations remain. Due to its location, the Regia is an unusual shape; almost pentagonal. The regia is so low and so unimpressive compared with the great remains in the forum that it is very easy to miss.

Only relatively recently discovered, these remains below the temple of Antoninus and Faustina date from the republican period. They are believed to be the servants' quarters of a private house of the late republic. They are visible only from above.

This large, once ornate, platform was a place for public address and speeches. Lying not far from the house of Caesar, it was constructed by the dictator, but after his death became obsolete with the construction of a new Rostrum at the far end of the central square, close to the curia.

This small circular shrine that stood near the east end of the forum, close to the Basilica of Maxentius, was dedicated to Bacchus and contained a statue to the God. Of uncertain date, though likely republican, the sacellum was restored under Antoninus Pius. The curved wall, half buried by foliage, is easy to miss unless you are looking for it.

The Cloaca Maxima (dealt with elsewhere) was the sewer than drained the swampy land of the forum. This small shrine in front of the Basilica Aemilia was dedicated to Cloacina (Goddess of the Sewers which were all so important to Roman life). With time, Cloacina became identified with Venus. Little remains of it today.

The tabularium (now visible as the facing wall of the substructures of the Capitoline palaces) was where the records and archives of the Roman state were kept. Most of the visible remains are of the substructure which consisted of a thick wall containing a passage that ran along the side of the rock of the Capitoline. Above this was an arcade, several arches of which can still be seen. The third story with another arcade was removed by Michaelangelo during the construction of the palace that now occupies the site. The upper corridor is accessible from the Capitoline side.

This temple, now largely occupied by the Church of San Lorenzo in Miranda, was constructed by Antoninus Pius in memory of his wife Faustina after her death in 141 AD. When Pius died in 161, Marcus Aurelius rededicated the temple to both of them. Much of the temple survives, pleasingly incorporated into the later church and the effect, rather than ruining the ancient building, actually makes it fascinating. It is one of the most beautiful and striking sights of the forum.

There is some confusion as to the remains to be found here, below the north-western tip of the Palatine. In this area was the temple of the deified Augustus which was constructed by his heir Tiberius, whose palace was directly above. Suetonius says that the temple was in fact finished by Caligula, who also dwelt in the palace above. Alongside the temple of Augustus, Tiberius also constructed a temple library, and when Caligula ruled, he constructed his famous bridge between the Palatine and Capitoline hills above this complex. Also, behind the complex, he constructed a new access to the Palatine palace, and doorways from the rear rooms of the complex led onto the ramp to the palace. The temple of Augustus was destroyed by fire before the reign of Domitian, who restored it. In sources we read of a temples of Caesar which is struck by lightning in 69 AD and if that was this temple, it would explain Domitian's restoration. The building was restored again by Hadrian and then again by Antoninus Pius. The vast majority of the remains that can be viewed now date from the rebuild of Domitian. The area of the forum in which it lies is currently closed and has been for quite a few years. It is possible to view the huge hall of brick-faced concrete that forms the front part of the complex, but the rear is inaccessible with its two rooms, peristyle and ramp. Indeed, beyond the temple down an inaccessible path is the Horrea Agrippiana.

Originally dedicated in the early republic (484 BC), this temple stands at the southeast of the Forum. Restored by Lucius Caecilius Metellus in 117 BC, the temple was completely rebuilt in the Principate by Tiberius in 6 AD, who dedicated it to his brother Drusus and himself. When Gaius (Caligula) remodelled the Domus Tiberiana on the Palatine, this temple was incorporated into his great vestibule, but was then removed from the complex by Claudius and further restored by Domitian. As well as its role as a temple the Temple of the Dioscuri (Castor & Pollux) served also as a public meeting place, house of weights & measures and a small private bank for the public. When the temple became ruined is unknown, but by the 15th century only the three columns now standing were to be seen.

Just below the Tabularium at the west end of the forum stands the Temple of Concord, constructed originally in 367 BC after public unrest had been peacefully quelled. Restored in 121 BC and again in 7 BC by Tiberius, this temple gradually accumulated statues and artworks from around the Roman world, including a Victory on the roof that was struck by lightning and various divinities from the Greek cities. Once cfaced with marble, all that is left now is the podium, which contains the earliest known use of concrete in the city.

This circular temple is usually identified with the son of the Emperor Maxentius, though historians have also identified it at times with Jupiter Stator. Given the evidence of an inscription of Constantine that dates the temple to the correct period, and the knowledge that Constantine rededicated the buildings of Maxentius, the likelihood is that this is the temple in memory of Romulus who was deified after his death in 307 AD. He was buried in a circular mausoleum on the Appian way, next to his father's villa. Views apparently of this temple appear on coins of Maxentius, and that emperor began the nearby basilica that was completed by Constantine also. In addition to the circular temple itself, side rooms were dedicated to the Penates, whose temple had been removed during construction of the nearby basilica. The facade is one of the more recognisable and memorable in Rome, with its curve and columns and the original 4th century bronze doors. The facade can be viewed from the forum, but the temple itself is now part of the church of Santi Cosima e Damiano, which opens from the Via dei Fori Imperiali.

The Temple of the Divine Julius Caesar was contructed by his great nephew Augustus over the site of the dictator's cremation and dedicated in 29 BC. Restored by Hadrian, the temple proper rose to a great height, though the main sight today is the restored altar in a curved niche at the base of the podium where the dictator had been cremated. The sad, low ruin was once a great temple, just in front of the Regia and to this day the Roman people leave bouquets of flowers on the altar, particularly around the time of his death. Though one of the least impressive remains of central Rome, the sheer importance of this building to Roman history makes it a must.

The Temple of Jupiter was one of the two great temples of the Capitol. Recent work on the new wing of the Capitoline Museum has resulted in the remains of the temple being preserved and opened to viewing within the museum. All that remains are a couple of walls and an area of neatly fitted stone paving.

Dedicated in 498 BC, the Temple of Saturn was one of the earliest temples in Rome. Rebuilt in 42 BC and the 4th century, the current remains date from this later rebuild. As well as serving as the temple, this building also housed the aerarium, or state treasury, and the law-codes on bronze tablets. One of the better surviving temples at the west end of the forum, the Temple of Saturn stands with its facade of columns and pediment intact and is one of the more beautiful sites of central Rome.

This temple, constructed by Hadrian in 135 AD was designed, so we are told, by the Emperor himself. Temples to two distinct divinities are a minority, but this design was indeed unique. This structure is nothing less than two temples, back to back. The temple of Venus faced the Colosseum, which it overlooked, and that of Roma faced the Capitoline, which was partially obscured later by the basilica of Maxentius. It was this Emperor who reconstructed the temple after fire damage in 307 AD and the remains currently visible mostly date from that time. It would certainly have been the largest temple in the city. A church was constructed in its ruins and the church of Santa Francesca Romana still occupies half of the site. A massive podium was constructed for the grand temple over some of the ruins of Nero's Domus Aurea. Indeed it is from here that Hadrian moved the Colossus down the hill and next to the amphitheatre. In the high side of the podium at the eastern end, storage rooms were added for the Colosseum. The temple of Roma is almost entirely lost under the church, but that of Venus, facing away, survives as an impressive podium with parts of the temple proper visible, including a huge apse that once housed a statue of the Goddess, and some of the surrounding portico of columns. On my last visit (2007) work was being done on the temple and the entire perimeter of columns had been rebuilt, though with some dreadfully fake plastic-looking columns that certainly did not fit well. For a detailed view of the new columns and originals, see photo 4. The temple itself is not reachable, but is clealy visible from all around, with a particularly good view from the amphitheatre.

Begun by Titus and finished by Domitian, this temple was originally dedicated to their father Vespasian. However, after Titus' death, Domitian included his brother in the dedication. The temple was restored by Septimius Severus and Caracalla. Fragments of the temple survive including three columns and a partial inscription. At the west end of the forum, this temple is somewhat jammed in the available space, up against the Tabularium at the foot of the Capitoline.

This complex consists of a small circular shrine, along with the private apartments and garden of the Vestals. The shrine or 'Sacellum', for this was not actually a dedicated temple, but a shrine, was small and served by the Vestals. It contained a secret recess in which were kept sacred objects, and was also home to the sacred fire which was kept burning at all times. The temple has a history of damage (particularly by fire) and restoration, having undergone repair after 390 BC, 241 BC, 14 BC, 64 AD and 191 AD. It survived these multiple destructions, only to be closed in 394 AD by Theodosius. The remains as seen today date from the restoration by Julia Domna in 191 AD. Of the house of the Vestals, among the buildings surrounding the garden was also the Domus Publica, where the Pontifex Maximus (or High Priest of Rome) had lived before the Emperors took on this responsibility. The rest of this palacial residence of more than 50 rooms on three floors around a central garden with a pool, was occupied purely by the Vestal virgins. The complex occupies the site of a sacred grove that continued to exist among the buildings of the forum until the fire in the reign of Nero. That fire also destroyed the house of the Vestals that had hitherto existed and the currently visible building dates from the rebuild after the great fire. After the closing of the temple in 394 AD, the house was turned into offices for the Imperial administration. The entire complex is visible from the forum, but access is generally not permitted and the garden must be viewed from a small platform at one end.

In the central space of the forum, before the curia and the comitium stand three trees, a fig, a vine and an olive. The trees were planted in the 20th century, but mark the spot where, according to Pliny the Elder, the same three plants grew in antiquity and were held sacred. The fig and vine had apparently sprung out of a hole in the ground, while the olive was planted to give some shade.

Constructed under Septimius Severus, this monument that stood next to the rostrum is a three-tiered cylinder of brick that was once marble faced. This odd item was created to mark the very centre of Rome and the Empire.